Abstract:
This PhD thesis investigates the epidemiology of hepatitis B virus (HBV), occult hepatitis B infection (OBI), and hepatitis E virus (HEV) in Cameroon, one of Africa’s persistently high HBV-endemic regions with emerging evidence of HEV transmission. Despite the introduction of infant HBV vaccination in 2005, large unvaccinated adult cohorts and the absence of HEV surveillance create a substantial hidden viral burden with implications for blood transfusion safety, antenatal care, and HIV clinical management. A cross-sectional study (March–June 2023) was conducted in the Southwest Region among three key populations: apparently healthy blood donors (n=289), HIV-positive adults on ART (n=233), and third-trimester pregnant women (n=190). Participants were recruited from regional hospitals and health centres.
Chapter 1 quantifies the burden of OBI among HBsAg-negative blood donors. Despite routine HBsAg testing, a considerable proportion of donors (5%) carried low-level HBV viremia detectable only by DNA PCR. Genotype E predominated, followed by genotype A, with several S-gene and polymerase mutations linked to immune escape and impaired HBsAg detection. These findings demonstrate that HBsAg-only screening fails to detect a substantial reservoir of infectious donations.
Chapter 2 evaluates HBV epidemiology, including OBI among HIV-positive adults and pregnant women. HBV DNA positivity and OBI prevalence were highest in HIV patients, reflecting extensive prior exposure and incomplete immune restoration under ART. Pregnant women also showed notable HBV DNA/OBI rates despite low HBsAg prevalence, indicating under-recognised maternal infection and risk of vertical transmission. Genotype A dominated in HIV patients, genotype E in pregnant women, and genotype B was detected for the first time in Cameroon.
Chapter 3 characterises HEV infection across the three populations using serology, RNA detection, and genotyping. All cohorts showed evidence of past or recent HEV exposure, with active viraemia identified among blood donors and pregnant women, indicating ongoing transmission and potential risks for transfusion and pregnancy outcomes. Zoonotic HEV genotype 3 (subtypes 3a and 3e) predominated and clustered phylogenetically with Asian and European strains, an unexpected finding that suggests evolving or previously unrecognised zoonotic or environmental transmission pathways. Although individual risk factors were not statistically significant, patterns in education, marital status, and alcohol use align with faecal–oral exposure routes.
Chapter 4 examines co-exposure and co-infection dynamics between HBV (including OBI) and HEV. Serological evidence of dual exposure was common, especially among HIV patients and blood donors, but concurrent active replication (HBV DNA plus HEV RNA) was rare. This mirrors patterns in Asian settings and reflects differences in viral biology. While simultaneous viraemia was uncommon, the findings highlight how transient HEV superinfection in chronic HBV carriers may accelerate liver disease.
Overall, this thesis provides epidemiological insights into HBV, OBI, and HEV in Cameroon and identifies several priority areas for public health action. HBsAg-only screening is insufficient in high-endemic settings and must be complemented with nucleic acid testing and/or anti-HBc screening to ensure transfusion safety. Expanding adult HBV vaccination, particularly for individuals born before 2005, is urgent. Incorporating HBV and HEV testing and surveillance into antenatal care, HIV clinics, and blood transfusion services will significantly strengthen national hepatitis control. Finally, longitudinal cohort studies are needed to better understand clinical outcomes of HEV infection and HBV–HEV co-infection in high-risk populations.